Hoekstra and Sloan analyze over 2 million 911 call records across several jurisdictions, focusing on whether race affects police use of force after accounting for situational variables such as the type of call, location, and threat level. The researchers use within-call variation—comparing how different officers respond to similar incidents—and find robust evidence that Black individuals are significantly more likely to be subjected to police force than white individuals. The effect is especially pronounced when the responding officer is white and the caller is anonymous, suggesting implicit or explicit racial bias plays a role. The paper also explores how officer demographics influence outcomes, supporting broader critiques of systemic racism in law enforcement.
From American Economic Review and NBER